One major way in which Christopher Matthew accomplishes this welcome task is by employing the techniques of what is sometimes termed experimental archaeology: a method in which the scholar reconstructs objects or practices from the ancient world in this particular case, ancient arms and armour and carries out a series of experiments in order to assess specific aspects of their characteristics and use. When engaged by skirmishers, who fought the hoplite from a distance, who were mobile enough to attack the vulnerable flanks of the hoplite phalanx, and were quick enough to be able to withdraw while the encumbered hoplite was unable to pursue, armies composed mainly of hoplites suffered significant losses. Thus, as the age of Classical Greece began to wane, the nature of warfare had fundamentally changed to a mode of fighting in which the effective use of troops armed in a variety of manners from heavily armed hoplites, to skirmishers, to cavalry was what now carried the day. The pike-phalanx has been an object of fierce study and endless debate almost from the moment that the first phalangite stepped forward onto the field of battle. In such circles, publications which describe experiments in flint-knapping or ceramic production are routine. The reconstruction attempts mentioned above both only deal with handling the sarisa in a tight formation, as can be seen in the video of Prof. Markle's attempt. This tactic, the bread and butter of many of Alexanders greatest military successes, was made up of two main parts. Similarly, the term peltast can be used to distinguish a Macedonian pikeman Aelian uses the term as meaning one who carries the pelt, the small Macedonian shield as well as being the term used to describe skirmishers, missile troops and light infantry (which Aelian called the psiloi) by other writers who also carried a small shield. [4] Men in rows behind the initial five angled their spears at a 45 degree angle in an attempt to ward off arrows or other projectiles. Contrary to all of these suggestions, Erskine argues that, if the term pezhetairoi is to be applied to the whole pike-wielding infantry by the time of Alexander the Great, it is odd that the term appears only three times in the works of Arrian (see following) which, he suggests, indicates that it is a term for a select unit within the Macedonian infantry. Erskine then argues that the pezhetairoi under Philip were a bodyguard (as per Theopompus and Photius) while, under Alexander the Great, they were a unit of infantry (as per Anaximenes and Demosthenes) with the guard role being taken up by the hypaspists. Regardless of who the term pezhetairoi should be applied to, the evidence seems clear that, at least by the time of Alexander the Great, the Foot Companions were operating on the battlefield as fully armed, pike-wielding, phalangites. When properly done such a study employs a scientific methodology akin to that found in a laboratory, and one that is equally valid. Prior to the rise of Macedon as a military power, the main offensive combatant in the ancient Greek world was the heavily-armoured hoplite. Hundreds of history documentaries, ad free podcasts and subscriber rewards. Such reconstructive or experimental archaeology is already well-established as a beneficial and valued tool in certain fields of study for example, among academics that focus on the Neolithic or other prehistoric eras. Frankenthal Professor of History and Humanistic Studies, In the fourth century BC a new style of warfare came onto the world stage which was to become the dominant form of fighting in the eastern Mediterranean for two centuries. The term could also be used to simply mean equipped. Yet the key to the Macedonian phalanxs power was actually the professionalism of the Macedonian soldiers. The battles of the long, bloody and costly Peloponnesian War (431-404BC) and its aftermath highlight how even-handed a hoplite versus hoplite engagement could be if both sides possessed strong enough morale to hold their ground. The conflicts of this time also demonstrated where the weaknesses in the hoplite phalanx lay. I wish to thank the following people without whose contributions the following work would not have been possible: Firstly, my wife Kate who has always expressed an interest in, and patience with, all aspects of my research; the following members of the Sydney Ancients re-enactment group for their invaluable support in putting many aspects of the Hellenistic pike-phalanx into action: David Armstrong, Krishna Armstrong, Peter Berecz, Paul Gross Fisher, Craig Gascoigne, Mark Kelly, Peter MacKinnon, Robert Wheeler; Doug Nielsen and Anne Nielsen for their assistance and participation in the testing phases of this research; Wayne Robinson of the Routiers Pike & Musket Society for providing me with direction to information on sixteenth and seventeenth century pikes and military training; Andrew Parkin of the Great North Museum, Newcastle upon Tyne, for images and details of the Macedonian pike-butt held in their collection; Willem van Haarlem from the Allard Pierson Museum, Amsterdam for images and details of the Ptolemaic shield mould in their collection; Stavros Paspalas from the Australian Archaeological Institute in Athens for his help in obtaining images used in this publication; Dr. Bill Franzen of Australian Catholic University for his valuable input and assistance with the mathematical formulae used throughout this work; Dr. Ian Plant from Macquarie University for help with some of the ancient passages used in this research; the editors of Antichthon for allowing me to reproduce the information I published in the article The Length of the Sarissa in an earlier edition of the journal (No.46 [2012], pages 79-100); and all of the other friends and colleagues who offered their support and encouragement during the research and writing of this project. For one, there is an attempt by Prof. Markle, which can be watched in the following video: A similar experiment was conducted by Prof. Victor Parker with students at the University of Canterbury. Having been the victim of numerous invasions by various tribes, the Macedonian footmen were ill-equipped and lacking in training no more than a rabble. An appreciation of tactics and generalship were now on the rise as a desired martial skill and many individuals who possessed these qualities and/or the innovative ability to come up with unconventional tactics men such as Epaminondas and Pelopidas of Thebes, and able commanders such as Chabrias and Iphicrates of Athens saw their stars, and those of their home states, well and truly shine. 
This methodology has been a bit slower to find widespread application among archaeologists and historians who work on the classical cultures of the ancient Mediterranean. What gives validity to such studies is that they are based on unchanging laws of physics, geometry, chemistry, and biology. however, the weapons in both attempts are not authentic reconstructions, but are just modelled after the ancient sarisa to convey the approximate feeling of handling the weapon. Obwohl sie in zahllosen modernen Abbildungen, Filmen, Videospielen, oder Bchern vorkommt, und in vielen antiken Texten erwhnt und vermeintlich erklrt wird,ist bis heute unklar, wie diese furchteinflssende Formation prinzipiell funktioniert hat. One of the tools which allowed Macedon to conquer Greece was the use of a style of fighting that had not yet been seen (for the most part) by many of the armies of the Greek city-states. This holistic understanding of the dynamics of the phalangite in action is then used as the basis for a greater interpretation of the mechanics of Hellenistic combat; including the creation and maintenance of formations on the battlefield, tactics and strategy. 
They also regularly endured arduous long-distance marches while carrying heavy packs containing their personal belongings. Christopher Matthew methodically takes us through every aspect of the Macedonian pike-phalanx, starting with its possible origins and then proceeding to analyse each individual piece of equipment that was employed by Macedonian phalangites, how it was held or worn, what its physical properties would have been, the implications of these characteristics for how it would have been held and used, how this in turn would have determined how the men were arranged in the phalanx, how groups of men would have stood and moved together, the effects the sarissa would have had upon an opponent, and how all of this information taken together can help us to understand how the pike-phalanx operated in actual combat. These uncertainties have spawned a particularly lively and long-standing set of debates regarding the weapons, organization, and tactics of the pike-phalanx, and various rival interpretations have been put forward. Thus, if one can accurately replicate the physical characteristics of an ancient arrow, one can measure and discuss what it may or may not have been capable of doing, and this is true whether or not any ancient literary source explicitly discusses the details of its performance. the changes in military tactics brought about by the adoption of the sarissa] it is necessary to be clear about the limitations of the size and weight of the sarissa, since these factors determined how the weapon could be wielded in battle. Thus, at least according to Markle, one cannot expect to understand the broader construct of warfare in the Hellenistic Age without first understanding the very nature of the lengthy pike which changed the face of that warfare. Demosthenes, writing in the 340s BC, states that the pezhetairoi had a reputation for being remarkably well trained in military matters and formed a part of the armed forces of Philip II. Theopompus, a contemporary of Alexander the Great, states that the pezhetairoi had acted as the kings bodyguard a definition later recalled by the lexicographer Photius.. The phalanx used the "oblique line with refused left" arrangement, designed to force enemies to engage with soldiers on the furthest right end, increasing the risk of opening a gap in their lines for the cavalry to break through. Into this vacuum marched the armies of the new emerging power in the Greek world Macedon. However, the important thing to note is that, even if the pezhetairoi are an individual unit or units within the pike-phalanx as some scholars suggest, they would still need to be armed in the manner of phalangites in order to perform within this larger formation on the battlefield. [4] The shield, called a telamon, was made of bronze plated wood and was worn hung around the neck so as to free up both hands to wield the sarissa. Mexican Food of the Middle Ages, 10 Key Figures in the British Industrial Revolution, Ignatius Sancho: The First Black Briton to Vote in an Election, Bones of Men and Horses: Unearthing the Horrors of War at Waterloo, One Giant Leap: The History of Spacesuits, Stalingrad Through German Eyes: The 6th Armys Defeat, North Coast 500: A Historic Photo Tour of Scotlands Route 66, Glass Bones and Walking Corpses: 9 Delusions from History. The area that has probably most embraced this approach is the study of classical warfare, a field which perhaps somewhat naturally invites attempts at reconstructing weapons and armour. In 359 BC, King Philip II ascended the Macedonian throne and inherited an infantry class that was deep in poverty. [1] The phalangites also had a smaller and flatter shield than that of the Greek aspis, measuring about 24 inches and weighing about 12 pounds. The reference to the coveted title of pezhetairoi may indicate that they were a special unit (or units) within the main infantry line. These units were most likely those under the command of Alexander the Greats most reliable and experienced commanders and may have been his frontline infantry units. Only $11.99/month after trial. A surprising number of earlier studies, however, have failed to fully take this simple but decisive point into account. Reconstruction attempts of the Macedonian phalanx formation are even rarer. However, Theopompus uses the imperfect tense (i.e. 
[4] The left flank was generally covered by allied cavalry supplied by the Thessalians, which fought in rhomboid formation and served mainly in a defensive role. For example the sauroter is missing, which however essentially influences the handling of the sarisa. Copyright Christopher Anthony Matthew, 2015. Yet, as noted, despite the long and extensive influence of the Hellenistic way of war, the specifics of this style of combat have been much debated. GlobalXplorer is the citizen science platform that archaeologist Sarah Parcak built with the 2016 TED Prize, to train a 21st century virtual army to help look for signs of archaeological looting, urban encroachment and sites that havent been excavated yet. Although it is depicted in countless modern artworks, movies, video games, or books, and it is described and explained by many ancient authors, to this dayit remains unknown how this terrifying formation actually worked. The right of Christopher Anthony Matthew to be identified as Author of this work has been asserted by his in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. including shields, swords, greaves, helmets, and body armour of a soldier. Having landed a critical blow against their opponents, Alexander and his hetairoi would then wheel round behind the enemy infantry, who were already engaged with the Macedonian phalanx, and deal a death blow from behind. Natalie Haynes and Dan Snow discuss the classical accounts which have contributed to our modern understanding of the Trojan War and its terrible aftermath. We started with Prof. Markle's reconstruction and tried to get a feeling for the amount of space the formation requires, for movement in the formation, and how to switch between marching and battle configurations. Taking advantage of Macedonias natural resources mainly the regions abundance of high-quality timber called cornel wood and bronze and iron reserves Philip equipped his armys footmen with a four to six-metre-long pike called a sarissa. [5] The secondary weapon was a shortsword called a xiphos. With a weapon as unwieldy and ponderous as a 5m sarissa, the point of balance is an absolutely crucial matter that dictates where it could have been held and how it could have been used. 44 40, siehe auchPlb. [1] The first phalanx was a 10 by 10 square with very few experienced troops. The use of purely theoretical reconstructions of a style of fighting does not allow for physical experimentation which is controlled, measurable and repeatable in order to test any conclusion based solely upon an interpretation of the source material. Alexanders cavalry was organized along similar lines with the Companion Cavalry, of which overall command was held by Philotas at Gaugamela, while individual units within the Macedonian cavalry were commanded by separate officers. Thus it seems that the pezhetairoi were a specially honoured or designated group of units within the main line of infantry. Along with ancient texts, any examination of warfare in the ancient world must also come to grips with other sources of evidence such as numismatics, epigraphy, archaeological interpretation, topographical analysis, art history, an understanding of logistics, physical dynamics, and every other piece of information and evidence that the researcher can access usually through many of the modern works that have come beforehand. Next to them were the pezhetairoi forming the whole centre of the line and commanded by the various officers whose turn of duty happened to fall upon that day In advance of the right wing he stationed the archers and Agrianes, while his left was screened by the Thracian javelin units under Sitacles.. A great number of people helped bring this project to life (in some cases literally). Against more lightly armoured opponents such as the Persians, Greek hoplites greatly outclassed enemies who were not prepared for the same close-contact style of fighting. An Invincible Beast is a follow-up work to an earlier investigation into the mechanics of warfare in Classical Greece which was published by Pen & Sword in 2012 as A Storm of Spears: Understanding the Greek Hoplite at War. Arrian recounts how Alexander the Greats heavy infantry who were facing the Pisidians were not eager to pursue their defeated foes due to their heavy equipment and the unknown nature of the local terrain. The difficulty that these men had with their equipment and the terrain further suggests that the pezhetairoi were armed as phalangites. This provided Alexander another phalanx formation to rival the one made up of now-grumbling Macedonian veterans; it also provided him a ready supply of pikemen, available for future conquests. Philips son and successor, Alexander, thus inherited the greatest infantry force of the time. [2] Other forcesskirmishers, range troops, reserves of allied hoplites, archers, and artillerywere also employed. Thus in this passage the pezhetairoi appear to be located within (or even constitute) the main infantry of the Macedonian line quite distinct from the hypaspists and light troops which are listed separately. Works that examine specific elements of warfare in the Hellenistic Age, such as tactics, weaponry, organization or logistics, with a view to better understanding them. Christopher Matthew has just completed his doctoral thesis on hoplite warfare at MacQuarie University in Sydney, where one of his assessors has said he 'singlehandedly advanced the whole field'. The hypaspists, elite infantrymen who served as the king's bodyguard,[7] were stationed on the immediate right of the phalanx wielding hoplite sized spears and shields. Following Erskine, the pezhetairoi in this passage do seem to be part of the main body of heavy infantry but the term may not necessarily be synonymous with the pike-phalanx as a whole. the pezhetairoi had formed a bodyguard) which suggests that Theopompus was aware that the pezhetairoi had once acted as the bodyguard for the king but that, at the time he was writing, they no longer performed this function. As the phalanx held its foe in position, Alexander would lead his powerful shock Macedonian cavalry, his hetairoi(companions), against a weak part of the enemy line. However, as this book points out, despite the fame and achievements of the ancient Macedonian military, profound gaps exist in our knowledge concerning almost every aspect of how this phalanx was equipped and functioned. However, much like the skirmishers of the Peloponnesian War, the length of the sarissa allowed the Macedonians to engage the Greeks at a distance where the Greek hoplites were not able to respond in kind (see The Reach and Trajectory of Attacks made with the sarissa and [from page 167] The Anvil in Action [from page 375]). Can Historians Use Red Dead Redemption in the Classroom? The Making of Wellington: The Battle of Vimeiro, Hatshepsut: The Temple of Egypts Female Pharaoh, The Worst Epidemic in History? Indeed, almost every facet of phalangite warfare is contested in some regard. He has also been invited to lecture on the subject at other Australian universities. To aid this process, a complete set of phalangite equipment was created by skilled craftsmen; this was then worn and tested in a variety of experiments which analysed different aspects of combat in the Hellenistic world. And yet, despite the dominance of this form of fighting for nearly two centuries, and despite the vast amount of modern and ancient literature dedicated to detailing the history of the Hellenistic world, and the organization of the Hellenistic formations which shaped it, there remains great contention among scholars as to who actually created the pike-phalanx and when. The Macedonian cavalry fought in wedge formation[2] and was almost always stationed on the far right. That new system of combat was the Hellenistic pike-phalanx a block of ranks and files made up of men wielding a long pike known as the sarissa. The sight of such a serried array of lengthy pikes, wielded in the hands of heavily-armoured phalangites, struck terror into all who witnessed it. In recent years, however, a growing number of scholars have applied these methods to an exciting range of topics beyond the field of military history, producing insights into numerous aspects of ancient life and culture, from the masks worn in Greek theatrical performances to the hairstyles that adorned upper-class Roman women. This uncertainty shows that the precise nature of warfare in the Hellenistic world has been far from fully understood. However, a comprehensive understanding of the Hellenistic man-at-arms needs to be undertaken in order for a lens to be held up to other works, both ancient and modern, to see how they compare and correlate with each other. This suggests that the sources may not conflict as much as they first appear. The nature of these ancient passages has led to many differing modern interpretations of who the pezhetairoi were. The Global Origins of Chess in War and Diplomacy. Unfortunately, which Alexander is being alluded to is not clear as there are three possible rulers that this text may be referring to: Alexander I, Alexander II and Alexander III. But for all of their value, many ancient sources still only provide a limited amount of information that can be used when reconstructing an ancient battle or examining a style of ancient combat. This simplification allows us to get used to the formation without the overhead of having to control the huge lance simultaneously. People who have read the earlier work may find certain parts of this book (particularly areas where examination processes are described) somewhat familiar and possibly even slightly repetitive. The pike itself, for example, could be referred to specifically as a sarissa or generally as a spear (doru) which is the same name for the weapon carried by the classical hoplite. Additionally, the pikemans shield could be referred to specifically as a pelt or generally as an aspis which is, again, the term used for the shields carried by the classical hoplite. Academics investigating the Roman legions or gladiator combat have done much useful work utilizing experimental archaeology that has greatly enhanced our understanding of these warriors. Until then we will have completed the reconstruction of all peltai and sarisas, so we can conduct the exercises with full weaponry. Many of these facets cannot be fully understood without first developing a comprehensive understanding of the role of the individual who took part in these engagements. The results of this final part of the examination into the Hellenistic pike-phalanx at war show that much of the earlier written work is incomplete, inconclusive or simply incorrect. The most significant accomplishment of this innovative book is that it offers a means of breaking free of this scholarly impasse by bringing a new methodology to bear upon these perennial mysteries. In our exercise we had nine soldiers at our disposal. 
The creation of the pike-phalanx, and particularly who created it, has been a topic of considerable scholarly debate for decades. The writer Harpocration relates how the historian Anaximenes, a contemporary of Alexander the Great who wrote the Philippika, a history of both Philip II and Alexanders reigns, mentions that the organization of the Macedonian military into distinct units was implemented by someone by the name of Alexander: Anaximenes, in the first book of the Philippika, speaking about Alexander, states: Next, after he accustomed those of the highest honour to ride on horseback, he called them Companions [hetairoi], and, after he had divided the majority of the infantry into companies [lochoi] and files [dekads] and other commands, he named them Infantry Companions [pezhetairoi], so that each of the two classes, by participating in the royal companionship, might continue to be very loyal..
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This methodology has been a bit slower to find widespread application among archaeologists and historians who work on the classical cultures of the ancient Mediterranean. What gives validity to such studies is that they are based on unchanging laws of physics, geometry, chemistry, and biology. however, the weapons in both attempts are not authentic reconstructions, but are just modelled after the ancient sarisa to convey the approximate feeling of handling the weapon. Obwohl sie in zahllosen modernen Abbildungen, Filmen, Videospielen, oder Bchern vorkommt, und in vielen antiken Texten erwhnt und vermeintlich erklrt wird,ist bis heute unklar, wie diese furchteinflssende Formation prinzipiell funktioniert hat. One of the tools which allowed Macedon to conquer Greece was the use of a style of fighting that had not yet been seen (for the most part) by many of the armies of the Greek city-states. This holistic understanding of the dynamics of the phalangite in action is then used as the basis for a greater interpretation of the mechanics of Hellenistic combat; including the creation and maintenance of formations on the battlefield, tactics and strategy. They also regularly endured arduous long-distance marches while carrying heavy packs containing their personal belongings. Christopher Matthew methodically takes us through every aspect of the Macedonian pike-phalanx, starting with its possible origins and then proceeding to analyse each individual piece of equipment that was employed by Macedonian phalangites, how it was held or worn, what its physical properties would have been, the implications of these characteristics for how it would have been held and used, how this in turn would have determined how the men were arranged in the phalanx, how groups of men would have stood and moved together, the effects the sarissa would have had upon an opponent, and how all of this information taken together can help us to understand how the pike-phalanx operated in actual combat. These uncertainties have spawned a particularly lively and long-standing set of debates regarding the weapons, organization, and tactics of the pike-phalanx, and various rival interpretations have been put forward. Thus, if one can accurately replicate the physical characteristics of an ancient arrow, one can measure and discuss what it may or may not have been capable of doing, and this is true whether or not any ancient literary source explicitly discusses the details of its performance. the changes in military tactics brought about by the adoption of the sarissa] it is necessary to be clear about the limitations of the size and weight of the sarissa, since these factors determined how the weapon could be wielded in battle. Thus, at least according to Markle, one cannot expect to understand the broader construct of warfare in the Hellenistic Age without first understanding the very nature of the lengthy pike which changed the face of that warfare. Demosthenes, writing in the 340s BC, states that the pezhetairoi had a reputation for being remarkably well trained in military matters and formed a part of the armed forces of Philip II. Theopompus, a contemporary of Alexander the Great, states that the pezhetairoi had acted as the kings bodyguard a definition later recalled by the lexicographer Photius.. The phalanx used the "oblique line with refused left" arrangement, designed to force enemies to engage with soldiers on the furthest right end, increasing the risk of opening a gap in their lines for the cavalry to break through. Into this vacuum marched the armies of the new emerging power in the Greek world Macedon. However, the important thing to note is that, even if the pezhetairoi are an individual unit or units within the pike-phalanx as some scholars suggest, they would still need to be armed in the manner of phalangites in order to perform within this larger formation on the battlefield. [4] The shield, called a telamon, was made of bronze plated wood and was worn hung around the neck so as to free up both hands to wield the sarissa. Mexican Food of the Middle Ages, 10 Key Figures in the British Industrial Revolution, Ignatius Sancho: The First Black Briton to Vote in an Election, Bones of Men and Horses: Unearthing the Horrors of War at Waterloo, One Giant Leap: The History of Spacesuits, Stalingrad Through German Eyes: The 6th Armys Defeat, North Coast 500: A Historic Photo Tour of Scotlands Route 66, Glass Bones and Walking Corpses: 9 Delusions from History. The area that has probably most embraced this approach is the study of classical warfare, a field which perhaps somewhat naturally invites attempts at reconstructing weapons and armour. In 359 BC, King Philip II ascended the Macedonian throne and inherited an infantry class that was deep in poverty. [1] The phalangites also had a smaller and flatter shield than that of the Greek aspis, measuring about 24 inches and weighing about 12 pounds. The reference to the coveted title of pezhetairoi may indicate that they were a special unit (or units) within the main infantry line. These units were most likely those under the command of Alexander the Greats most reliable and experienced commanders and may have been his frontline infantry units. Only $11.99/month after trial. A surprising number of earlier studies, however, have failed to fully take this simple but decisive point into account. Reconstruction attempts of the Macedonian phalanx formation are even rarer. However, Theopompus uses the imperfect tense (i.e. [4] The left flank was generally covered by allied cavalry supplied by the Thessalians, which fought in rhomboid formation and served mainly in a defensive role. For example the sauroter is missing, which however essentially influences the handling of the sarisa. Copyright Christopher Anthony Matthew, 2015. Yet, as noted, despite the long and extensive influence of the Hellenistic way of war, the specifics of this style of combat have been much debated. GlobalXplorer is the citizen science platform that archaeologist Sarah Parcak built with the 2016 TED Prize, to train a 21st century virtual army to help look for signs of archaeological looting, urban encroachment and sites that havent been excavated yet. Although it is depicted in countless modern artworks, movies, video games, or books, and it is described and explained by many ancient authors, to this dayit remains unknown how this terrifying formation actually worked. The right of Christopher Anthony Matthew to be identified as Author of this work has been asserted by his in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. including shields, swords, greaves, helmets, and body armour of a soldier. Having landed a critical blow against their opponents, Alexander and his hetairoi would then wheel round behind the enemy infantry, who were already engaged with the Macedonian phalanx, and deal a death blow from behind. Natalie Haynes and Dan Snow discuss the classical accounts which have contributed to our modern understanding of the Trojan War and its terrible aftermath. We started with Prof. Markle's reconstruction and tried to get a feeling for the amount of space the formation requires, for movement in the formation, and how to switch between marching and battle configurations. Taking advantage of Macedonias natural resources mainly the regions abundance of high-quality timber called cornel wood and bronze and iron reserves Philip equipped his armys footmen with a four to six-metre-long pike called a sarissa. [5] The secondary weapon was a shortsword called a xiphos. With a weapon as unwieldy and ponderous as a 5m sarissa, the point of balance is an absolutely crucial matter that dictates where it could have been held and how it could have been used. 44 40, siehe auchPlb. [1] The first phalanx was a 10 by 10 square with very few experienced troops. The use of purely theoretical reconstructions of a style of fighting does not allow for physical experimentation which is controlled, measurable and repeatable in order to test any conclusion based solely upon an interpretation of the source material. Alexanders cavalry was organized along similar lines with the Companion Cavalry, of which overall command was held by Philotas at Gaugamela, while individual units within the Macedonian cavalry were commanded by separate officers. Thus it seems that the pezhetairoi were a specially honoured or designated group of units within the main line of infantry. Along with ancient texts, any examination of warfare in the ancient world must also come to grips with other sources of evidence such as numismatics, epigraphy, archaeological interpretation, topographical analysis, art history, an understanding of logistics, physical dynamics, and every other piece of information and evidence that the researcher can access usually through many of the modern works that have come beforehand. Next to them were the pezhetairoi forming the whole centre of the line and commanded by the various officers whose turn of duty happened to fall upon that day In advance of the right wing he stationed the archers and Agrianes, while his left was screened by the Thracian javelin units under Sitacles.. A great number of people helped bring this project to life (in some cases literally). Against more lightly armoured opponents such as the Persians, Greek hoplites greatly outclassed enemies who were not prepared for the same close-contact style of fighting. An Invincible Beast is a follow-up work to an earlier investigation into the mechanics of warfare in Classical Greece which was published by Pen & Sword in 2012 as A Storm of Spears: Understanding the Greek Hoplite at War. Arrian recounts how Alexander the Greats heavy infantry who were facing the Pisidians were not eager to pursue their defeated foes due to their heavy equipment and the unknown nature of the local terrain. The difficulty that these men had with their equipment and the terrain further suggests that the pezhetairoi were armed as phalangites. This provided Alexander another phalanx formation to rival the one made up of now-grumbling Macedonian veterans; it also provided him a ready supply of pikemen, available for future conquests. Philips son and successor, Alexander, thus inherited the greatest infantry force of the time. [2] Other forcesskirmishers, range troops, reserves of allied hoplites, archers, and artillerywere also employed. Thus in this passage the pezhetairoi appear to be located within (or even constitute) the main infantry of the Macedonian line quite distinct from the hypaspists and light troops which are listed separately. Works that examine specific elements of warfare in the Hellenistic Age, such as tactics, weaponry, organization or logistics, with a view to better understanding them. Christopher Matthew has just completed his doctoral thesis on hoplite warfare at MacQuarie University in Sydney, where one of his assessors has said he 'singlehandedly advanced the whole field'. The hypaspists, elite infantrymen who served as the king's bodyguard,[7] were stationed on the immediate right of the phalanx wielding hoplite sized spears and shields. Following Erskine, the pezhetairoi in this passage do seem to be part of the main body of heavy infantry but the term may not necessarily be synonymous with the pike-phalanx as a whole. the pezhetairoi had formed a bodyguard) which suggests that Theopompus was aware that the pezhetairoi had once acted as the bodyguard for the king but that, at the time he was writing, they no longer performed this function. As the phalanx held its foe in position, Alexander would lead his powerful shock Macedonian cavalry, his hetairoi(companions), against a weak part of the enemy line. However, as this book points out, despite the fame and achievements of the ancient Macedonian military, profound gaps exist in our knowledge concerning almost every aspect of how this phalanx was equipped and functioned. However, much like the skirmishers of the Peloponnesian War, the length of the sarissa allowed the Macedonians to engage the Greeks at a distance where the Greek hoplites were not able to respond in kind (see The Reach and Trajectory of Attacks made with the sarissa and [from page 167] The Anvil in Action [from page 375]). Can Historians Use Red Dead Redemption in the Classroom? The Making of Wellington: The Battle of Vimeiro, Hatshepsut: The Temple of Egypts Female Pharaoh, The Worst Epidemic in History? Indeed, almost every facet of phalangite warfare is contested in some regard. He has also been invited to lecture on the subject at other Australian universities. To aid this process, a complete set of phalangite equipment was created by skilled craftsmen; this was then worn and tested in a variety of experiments which analysed different aspects of combat in the Hellenistic world. And yet, despite the dominance of this form of fighting for nearly two centuries, and despite the vast amount of modern and ancient literature dedicated to detailing the history of the Hellenistic world, and the organization of the Hellenistic formations which shaped it, there remains great contention among scholars as to who actually created the pike-phalanx and when. The Macedonian cavalry fought in wedge formation[2] and was almost always stationed on the far right. That new system of combat was the Hellenistic pike-phalanx a block of ranks and files made up of men wielding a long pike known as the sarissa. The sight of such a serried array of lengthy pikes, wielded in the hands of heavily-armoured phalangites, struck terror into all who witnessed it. In recent years, however, a growing number of scholars have applied these methods to an exciting range of topics beyond the field of military history, producing insights into numerous aspects of ancient life and culture, from the masks worn in Greek theatrical performances to the hairstyles that adorned upper-class Roman women. This uncertainty shows that the precise nature of warfare in the Hellenistic world has been far from fully understood. However, a comprehensive understanding of the Hellenistic man-at-arms needs to be undertaken in order for a lens to be held up to other works, both ancient and modern, to see how they compare and correlate with each other. This suggests that the sources may not conflict as much as they first appear. The nature of these ancient passages has led to many differing modern interpretations of who the pezhetairoi were. The Global Origins of Chess in War and Diplomacy. Unfortunately, which Alexander is being alluded to is not clear as there are three possible rulers that this text may be referring to: Alexander I, Alexander II and Alexander III. But for all of their value, many ancient sources still only provide a limited amount of information that can be used when reconstructing an ancient battle or examining a style of ancient combat. This simplification allows us to get used to the formation without the overhead of having to control the huge lance simultaneously. People who have read the earlier work may find certain parts of this book (particularly areas where examination processes are described) somewhat familiar and possibly even slightly repetitive. The pike itself, for example, could be referred to specifically as a sarissa or generally as a spear (doru) which is the same name for the weapon carried by the classical hoplite. Additionally, the pikemans shield could be referred to specifically as a pelt or generally as an aspis which is, again, the term used for the shields carried by the classical hoplite. Academics investigating the Roman legions or gladiator combat have done much useful work utilizing experimental archaeology that has greatly enhanced our understanding of these warriors. Until then we will have completed the reconstruction of all peltai and sarisas, so we can conduct the exercises with full weaponry. Many of these facets cannot be fully understood without first developing a comprehensive understanding of the role of the individual who took part in these engagements. The results of this final part of the examination into the Hellenistic pike-phalanx at war show that much of the earlier written work is incomplete, inconclusive or simply incorrect. The most significant accomplishment of this innovative book is that it offers a means of breaking free of this scholarly impasse by bringing a new methodology to bear upon these perennial mysteries. In our exercise we had nine soldiers at our disposal. The creation of the pike-phalanx, and particularly who created it, has been a topic of considerable scholarly debate for decades. The writer Harpocration relates how the historian Anaximenes, a contemporary of Alexander the Great who wrote the Philippika, a history of both Philip II and Alexanders reigns, mentions that the organization of the Macedonian military into distinct units was implemented by someone by the name of Alexander: Anaximenes, in the first book of the Philippika, speaking about Alexander, states: Next, after he accustomed those of the highest honour to ride on horseback, he called them Companions [hetairoi], and, after he had divided the majority of the infantry into companies [lochoi] and files [dekads] and other commands, he named them Infantry Companions [pezhetairoi], so that each of the two classes, by participating in the royal companionship, might continue to be very loyal..
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